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The Origins of Golf at North Berwick The Golf Meeting |  The Caddie |  West Links |  Clubmaker |  Professional North Berwick Museum School Road, North Berwick Closed - 2010 Tel: 01620 895457 13th West Links, North Berwick © Digitalsport UK Bass Rock Golf Club Secretary: Tom McGinley Tel. 01620 895182 North Berwick Golf Club Secretary: Christopher Spencer Tel. 01620 895040 Tantallon Golf Club Secretary: Ian F Doig Tel. 01620 892114   Origins of Golf at North Berwick By Douglas Seaton North Berwick Factfile The origins of golf are open to speculation, but most historians agree that the ball and stick games played during the middle ages had certain common elements with golf and they almost certainly influenced one another. Evidence shows that golf, as it is played today evolved in Scotland and in the 18th century, began to spread to the rest of the world. According to Frank Morin the respected golf historian and correspondent of The Scotsman - 'Golf was first played on Leith Sands, then Leith Links and then Musselburgh Links'. At North Berwick golf was played on the Burgh Common or East Links during the 17th century. By the 1790s, the golfers had moved from the Common and were playing their sport on the West Links. Today there are four Golf Clubs playing the West Links, a practice unique to many Scottish courses. In the 15th century several Acts of Parliament banned football and golf - although that did not stop the Stewart kings enjoying their games. James VI played golf at Gosford House and Mary Queen of Scots played a famous game of golf at Seton House in 1567. Gosford and the site of Seton Palace are within a few miles of North Berwick. The Reformed Church after 1560 was no supporter of games and sports. It had particular problems after 1690 when Presbyterianism was re-established following three decades of episcopal church government.

The first reference to the 'toune links' was made in the Kirk Session book of 15th January 1605. The East Links were in common ownership as the King gifted the land to the town in return for their political support and the supply of soldiers when necessary. The position of Lord Lieutenant was created in the reign of Henry VIII for the purpose of raising the armies and militia in East Lothian. This position continues to this day and the county is an important recruiting ground for the Royal Scots Regiment. The King supported the 'Royal Burghs' to neutralise the power of the neighbouring landowning Barons. The land was given for the common use of the citizens, for grazing their animals, washing and bleaching clothes, repairing the fisherman's nets, travelling fairs and playing their sports, under the authority of the Burgh Council. In Scotland it was not just parliament which disapproved of sport, from the 1560s onwards both the Burgh Councils and Kirk Session throughout Scotland laid down a statute banning games including golf, especially on the Sabbath. Fines were imposed and repeat offenders sent to prison. The earliest reference to golf in North Berwick is recorded in the Kirk Session Book in January 1611, when Alex Lockart and Thomas Gowan were accused of playing golf on the Sabbath. For their punishment they were committed to sit at the front of the St Andrews Kirk on the Anchor Green on cuckstools (pillory stools), facing the congregation, as they listen to the ranting of the parish minister Thomas Bannatyne against them and their sins. Due contrition was to be shown by the penitents as they fell to their knees at the feet of the minister and prayed for atonement for their misdemeanors and after a suitable number of humiliating appearances, they were forgiven. In the Session Records of South Leith Parish Church from the same period a twenty pound fine was also imposed. The extracts below are taken from the North Berwick Kirk Session book. January 20th 1611 On quilk (which) day the repentance of Thomas Gowan and others was required by humbling themselves on their knees and craving god forgiveness for prophaning the Sabbath ye 6th January instant for playing at the goulf. January 22nd 1611 The gudeman of North Berwick delatit (accused) Alex Lockart as a prophanor of the Sabbath for playing at the golf. Prior to 1620, golf took at least two forms, the 'Long Game' played on the links by those able to purchase golf balls and clubs, and the 'Short Game' played in the street or in the churchyard with a stone or pebble and a wooden stick as a club. It would have been the pebble and stick game which Lockart and Gowan were caught playing. The game of Shinty similar to golf, played with a stick and ball was also played in North Berwick. An extract from the Town Council minutes of 1st January 1671 reports ' Teams from the East and West Gait were playing schinnie on the Sabbath last, in the afternoon.' The game of golf was played on the links land by gentlemen of independent means, wealthy merchants and burgesses of the town. The word 'links' means ridges, hummocks or rough open ground. Over the years the sea receded from the arable land exposing sand dunes with a thin layer of top soil that nurtured fescue, marron, bent and meadow grass, all with deep roots. Part of the links land was only good enough for grazing sheep and goats but were found to be ideal for playing football and golf. Golf was originally played on the East Links during the winter months as the Council harvested the grass on the Common in summer. The golfers were banned from playing their sport from March until September which was first mentioned in the Town Council minutes of 27th March 1728. 'The Baliffs and Council order that intimation be publickie made that no person suffer their horses [note] (what be this wonderous beast?), sheep, or swine to pasture upon the common green until the same be broken up [ie. until the same be in common] and that non play at the golf, nor go through with carts or horses to prejud the growing of grass'. An extract from the Council records of 21st March 1775 reads.'The Magistrates and Council gave order to discharge all Golfing on the Toune Green on the south side of the road leading from the Toune to the Milns and over Castlehill after 25th of this month till the first of September next and so on yearly without liberty asked and given by one of the Magistrates or Toune Treasurer. And no person or persons shall be permitted to play at golf over the Castlehill without a runner before to forewarn passengers passing or repassing to keep out of harm's way and the Magistrates are impowered at any time to stop all idle persons from golfing on the green to the prejudice of the pasture ground, and for every trespass of this Act the Magistrates or Magistrate at the time are impowered to draw a fine of twelve shillings Scots toties quoties.'

Balls, clubs and men I sing, who just methinks, made sport and bustle on North Berwick Links, brought coin and fashion, betting and renown, champagne and claret to a county town, and lords and ladies, knights and squires to ground, where washerwomen erst, and snobs were found! Golfiada (1833), George Fullerton Carnegie

In 1863, the Magistrates controversially approved the building of more villas on the East Links which resulted in a legal action, when a number of witnesses stated that they had never seen golf played on the East Links. From this we can deduce that the game ceased to be played on the Burgh Common during the 1790s. At this time interest in golf had declined throughout the country and many of the early clubs had disbanded. At North Berwick the fishermen were being permitted to dry their nets on the West Links, although this decision was reversed by the Town Council in 1859, but not before the North Berwick Golf Club almost closed in 1848. By the 1860s interest had increased and the game was being played on a regular basis over the West Links with the North Berwick Golf Club meeting on the first Wednesday in May, June, July and August. Every community required the social approval for sporting activity and the inhabitants of North Berwick were fortunate that the local landowners,burgesses and Town Council encouraged such activities. Elite attitudes to sport changed significantly in the late 19th century as the notion of 'muscular Christianity' spread out from the English public schools. The landowners and professional men increasingly felt it appropriate to become patrons of sporting clubs in their area. More importantly they also made available the land required to play the games. The West Links was originally part of the Abbey Farm owned by the Nunnery, and in 1694 the ownership passed to Sir Hew Dalrymple (1652-1737) who held the barony of North Berwick. Sir Hew, made the West Links available for the benefit of the community where they could participate in sports and other activities. The Dalrymple family have had a long association with first archery, then golf. David Dalrymple an advocate in Edinburgh, who as Lord Westhill was Lord of Session, and captain of the Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers at Leith Links. Hew Dalrymple (later Lord Drummore) second son of the 1st Baronet of North Berwick became a member of the Royal Company of Archers in 1710, and was also captain of the Honourable Company. The landowner to the west of the town was Rt. Hon. John Nisbet-Hamilton, owner of Archerfield Estate. He was a keen golfer and provided the land for the Ladies golf course in 1868, and the extension of the West Links in 1895. Sir Walter Hamilton-Dalrymple laid out a nine-hole golf course on the Rhodes farm to the east of the town in 1894, which was extended to become the Burgh Course in 1906. He also supplied premises for the clubmakers and supported the formation of the Ladies Club in 1888.

Rule 4. Caddies fourteen years of age and upwards shall rank as first class caddies; caddies under fourteen years of age shall rank as second class caddies. A second class caddie may be promoted to the rank of first class for displaying exceptional merit and good conduct, and a first class caddie may be reduced to the rank of second class for misconduct, breach of rules etc. by order of the Green Committee 1895.

The Factory Acts was another important factor with skilled workers getting the Saturday half-day in the 1850s and most unskilled workers by the 1890s. It was only as the 1880s wore on that Saturday afternoon became established as the appropriate time for team games. This is why most accounts of sporting encounters before the late 1800s are about games played on the great national holidays such as New Years day. New Year did not necessarily mean 1st January. Many communities continued to celebrated the Old New Year on 12th January well into the 1880s. This was a hang over from the government's decision to change from the Julian to the Gregorian Calendar in 1752 which involved writing off eleven days, thus apparently moving Ne'erday back in time. In North Berwick the main festival was held on Hansel Monday, the first Monday in the New Year when the community turned out to compete in games on the West Links which included the annual town horse race. Two Provosts of the Royal Burgh of North Berwick, Peter Brodie (1866-87) and John Whitecross (1893-96) were both accomplished golfers and took a leading role in promoting the game. Provost Brodie was a very sporty character and kept a string of racehorses at Gullane which often won at Kelso, Musselburgh and Perth. Whitecross was a leading grocer and as the town flourished so did he. Peter Brodie was instrumental in drafting the Burgh Police Act (1892) which allowed many Scottish towns to reclaim their lost linksland. When Brodie and Whitecross partnered Edward Blyth and Robert Chambers they could hold their own against any players sent from St Andrews and Musselburgh.

The Town Council realised the economic benefit of attracting visitors to play golf at North Berwick and began an advertising campaign, describing the town as the 'Biarritz of the North'. Posters featuring the golf courses appeared at railway stations all over the country, and are now highly collectible. This initially attracted the well-to-do but later as the game become more affordable the middle-class took up the sport. In 1902, the American Ambassador Joseph Choate rented Cheylesmore Lodge for the autumn season and during September he played golf everyday with Prime Minister Balfour, Duke Of Cambridge and Lord Rothschild. Mr and Mrs Asquith (Shipka) were also in town. Another essential requirement was decent sports equipment, and it was the advances in industrial technology that probably did more than anything else to drive the sporting revolution. This covers everything from the invention of vulcanised rubber for tennis balls, the production of high quality iron and steel for golf clubs, ice skates and lawn mowers, watches and clocks for accurate timekeeping and the invention in 1845 of the gutta percha golf ball. As golf clubs were established and national rules adopted, the next step was challenge matches with other clubs. This was conducted by letter, telegraph or even newspaper correspondence columns. These new technologies were now helping to transform nineteenth century society. Part of the West Links, (Elcho Green to the March Dyke) remains common land protected by the National Trust for Scotland. The remainder of the West Links was purchased by the Town Council in 1954. Following local government regionalisation in 1975, all the town assets including the East Course were administered by East Lothian Council who now own the land.

the beginning .......

The West Links was originally part of the Abbey Farm owned by the Nunnery and the feuars of the property in Westgate (Law Brae to Abbey Road) were granted the right to graze their animals on the West Links in place of ground near the Abbey. The term 'feu' in Scottish Law is a right to the use of land in return for a fixed annual payment (feu-duty). The feuars were each entitled to graze two cows or horses on the West Links, which stretched from Elcho House north of Church Road, to the March Dyke at Kaimend. Except from Candlemas to Whitsunday when cattle were restricted to the east side of the track called Ware Road, the remains of which cross the present second fairway. A cow herders hut was also sited in this area until 1895.

Left to Right: H. Taylor; H. Vardon; B. Sayers; W. Auchterlonie; A. Kirkaldy; W. Fernie; J. Braid; G. Causey; A. Herd (Open Champion); J. White;1902

It was the custom in 1826 when turf was taken from the West Links to cover a grave in the churchyard, sixpence was paid to the Feuars of Wetgate as compensation. In 1834 the feuars complained that the golfers were causing harm to the West Links and asked for compensation from the Lessees of the Private Green. In June 1834 payment was agreed at 18/- a year to each feuar who kept cows on the links, and this was collected from the golfer in the form of green fees. In 1881 only three people among the feuars kept two cows each, and by the early twentieth century the practice of grazing cattle on the links had ceased. A typical byre and adjoining cottage can be seen at 11 Abbey Road, where the last working tenant was carter and dairyman Alex Brown.

the golf meeting ........

The town took on a festive mood at the start of the two day golf meeting. The carriages would arrive from the elegant country houses with the gentlemen and their house guests. The ground was cleared, a marquee erected, several holes cut from the turf and the local caddies and forerunners would line up to be hired. The golfers would bring donations of food to be cooked on the site adjacent to the marquee for the luncheon and dinner after the game. This included mutton, venison, pheasant, duck and from the local fishermen, lobster, crab and sand eels, all washed down with the best claret. John Gourlay, the finest feathery ballmaker of his generation was also a talented speaker and was often invited to be 'Master of Ceremonies' at the North Berwick golf meetings. By 1865 the committee of the North Berwick Golf Club were meeting at the Dalrymple Arms Hotel in Quality Street during the first week of May, June, July and September. Humans have always congregate together so group meetings on a convivial basis was a natural development. British Golf Clubs tended to run along segregated lines either by sex or by class, as well as having an occupational or economic basis, so it was no surprise that those wishing to pursue the traditional game of golf would follow a similar pattern. The Masonic influence was common to most golf clubs in those early days. When a person wished to join the club he was selected by each member putting their hand in the opening of a closed box and placing a wooden ball into the yes or no compartments, which is vintage Masonic practice. No reason was given to the unsuccessful candidate, and nobody knew who had blackballed them. Often the captain was allowed to enter three members a year ' on the shake of a hand.' For over a hundred years from 1750 when there was no royal patronage of the game, the Freemasons kept the interest in golf alive. With the practice of bets being placed among the golfers, there was a requirement for rules and the Freemasons laid down a code of fair play for its members so that everything was equally shared out - hence the term fair-ways. The word 'fairways' was also used by fishermen meaning 'safe passage' for the journey out and back, like the nine holes out and nine back on the early courses. It was through the association with the Society of Freemasons that golf spread to North America and the British Colonies. Today our attitude to Freemasonry has changed considerably. We are now wary of the secrecy involved. In those bygone days Freemasonry was perceived as an organisation that promulgated the egalitarian views which would later be enshrined in the American and French Constitutions.

Harry Vardon tied with J.H. Taylor for the Open Championship at Muirfield in 1896. Before the replay he looked into Ben Sayers's shop at 102 High Street, North Berwick and his eye was caught by a cleek putter. It helped to give him his first 'Open' championship.

North Berwick Golf Club was formed on 8th May 1832 in George Sligo's mansion house at Seacliff according to an article written by John Kerr. Sir David Baird of Newbyth was elected captain and he struck the first ball off the tee at 12 noon following the first ordinary meeting on Wednesday 4th July 1832. Sir David Baird was a leading spirit in the formation of the club and presented three dozen bottles of champagne at the first competition. The club had a limit of fifty members, the joining age was twenty-one years old, and throughout it's 130 year history has never owned a clubhouse but instead the membership preferred to use the traditional marquee for their lunch with dinner in the Dalrymple Arms at night. By 1894 interest in the Club had declined and for the next thirty years the members held only a single meeting each year. The use of a tent for the Club Meetings continued until 1960. This was reflected in the North Berwick Golf Club Local Rules and Regulations (1926). Rule 11. Any ball driven inside the Tent or the Ropes to be lifted and placed outside without penalty. Rule 6. The Annual Meeting of the Club to take place on the Thursday and Friday of the week immediately preceding the week of the Doncaster September Race Meeting. The Business Meeting shall take place in the Tent at 10.30am on the first day of the Meeting. After the Business Meeting the Medal will be played for at 11 o'clock, and Lunch will be served in the Tent on the arrival of the last couple playing the Medal. Members shall obtain Luncheon Tickets from the Purveyor for themselves and also their guests. Twenty of the original members at the North Berwick Golf Club were also members of the Royal and Ancient Club in St Andrews and the Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers at Leith Links. Including James Campbell of Glensaddell from The Priory in St Andrews, his friend J.O. Fairlie from Coodham near Prestwick, Archibald Montgomerie the 13th Earl of Eglinton, a landowner in Aryshire and Robert Liston the eminent surgeon, Sir David Baird of Newbyth, Robert Stuart of Alderston, Haddington and locals John Buckle and Captain Brown. Together they were able to set the dates for the various golf meetings to avoid the major race meetings in Scotland and England. In 1857, Robert Hay and Ord Campbell represented North Berwick Golf Club in the first National Foursomes Tournament at St Andrews. Tantallon Golf Club was founded on 17th September 1853 by the merchants in the Burgh, and held their golf meetings on the West Links. Tantallon also used a tent on their competition days before they sold it in 1887 and hired a room from Tom Dunn for their meetings. In 1896, they converted Point Garry Cottage into a clubhouse, now the oldest original clubroom in existence. In 1897, the Royal and Ancient Golf Club was appointed to administrate the game and among those who served on the first Rules of Golf Committee were J.E. Laidlay, B. Hall Blyth and F. G. Tait, all members of Tantallon Golf Club. The Bass Rock Golf Club instituted on 24th April 1873 was one of the first independent artisan clubs in the country. The Club held their meetings on the West Links on Saturday afternoon. Although the membership was open to all in 1969 with a limit of 100, the Club to this day does not have a clubhouse. In 1879, the North Berwick New Golf Club was established and the following year built their own clubhouse, which can be seen today beside the 18th green. William Cree, as winner of the Club Gold Medal was first captain of the North Berwick New Club in 1881. He lived at 16 Eglinton Crescent in Edinburgh. It was his son J. E. Cree, also a member of the New Club who built Tusculum in York Road in 1899. By 1962 the membership of the North Berwick Golf Club had declined to a point that the North Berwick New Club was approached to take over their assets including the trophies. On 1st January 1963 the North Berwick New Club adopted the name North Berwick Golf Club and the new club controversially advertised itself as founded in 1832.

James Braid's first venture into golf course design came in 1894 when he assisted Ben Sayers to layout the nine-hole Rhodes course at North Berwick.

Churchman's Cigarette Card series - 'Men of the Moment in Sport' - 1890.

The Ladies Course at North Berwick was laid out in 1868 and is the oldest nine-hole Ladies course in Scotland. The course was leased by the Ladies' Club formed in 1888 with their own greenkeeping staff and a timber clubhouse in the grounds of the Marine Hotel. The course was redesigned by Tom Dunn in 1888 and is known today as the Children's course. In 1897, the Ladies' could play on the West Links course before 9am and from 11am -1 pm, though mixed foursomes could play at any time. The use of the long course by the Ladies' was unusual and it has been suggested that this was the reason why the North Berwick Ladies' dominated women's golf during this early period. The Ladies' moved to the North Berwick New Clubhouse in 1924 and became full members of the North Berwick Golf Club in 2005. Lord Elcho donated a medal in 1868 for competition among the children of visitors to the town. The earliest recorded Open Junior Golf Tournament at North Berwick took place in October 1868. When boys over ten, but under fifteen years, competed in a stroke play tournament over the West Links, while those under the age of ten competed on the Ladies Links. The prizes were donated by William Cree and Andrew Bryson, both medallists of Tantallon Golf Club. William Cree was the first captain of North Berwick New Club in 1881. This competition for boys under fourteen years developed into the Cree Trophy, which is still contested today and is one of the oldest open junior golf competitions in the world. Many youngsters were introduced to golf on the Ladies Course including David Blair the first Scottish School Boy's champion (1935) and Walker Cup team member in 1955-61. Raymond Russell another Walker Cup player, was introduced to golf on the Ladies Links when his father cut down his first set of clubs in 1982. Russell joined the European PGA Tour in 1993 and a career hightlight was closing with a 66 to finish fourth behind Mark O'Meara in the 1998 Open at Royal Birkdale and representing Scotland in the Dunhill Cup that year. Although most junior competition's were mixed, leaving the girls at a disadvantage, Catriona Matthew (nee Lambert) did manage to win at least one junior competition before becoming three times North Berwick Ladies Club Champion. Catriona joined the professional ranks in 1994. John E. Laidlay J.P. and Robert Maxwell have the unique distinction of being elected captain of the North Berwick Club, Tantallon Golf Club, and North Berwick New Club during their careers and both won the Amateur Championship twice. Robert Maxwell lived at Balgone House, then The Lodge in Quality Street, before building Pointgarry House as his residence in North Berwick in 1898. Maxwell would play the West Links all day and walk the course at night. He won the Amateur Championship at Muirfield in 1903 and 1909 and represented Scotland from 1902 until 1910. In 1903, for the second consecutive year he was leading amateur at the Open. During his first senior tournament in 1897, Maxwell defeated John Ball and Horace Hutchison on the first day. For many years Robert Maxwell was also President of the Rhodes Golf Club at North Berwick. The original watercolour drawing of Robert Maxwell published in 'Vanity Fair' was presented to the British Golf Museum by Tantallon Golf Club and is now on permanent display. His brother David Maxwell emigrated to Australia and won the Royal Melbourne Golf Club medal in 1891. He moved to Flinders in Victoria and founded the Flinders Golf Club in 1903. His other brother Francis Maxwell, also a golfer, extended the original Royal Adelaide course to 18 holes at Glenelg in the southern suburbs of the Australian city in 1903. In WW1, Robert Maxwell enlisted as a private in the 8th Royal Scots. He was awarded the Military Cross and by 1918 was commissioned Captain Robert Maxwell. Johnny Laidlay born in 1860 at Seacliff, two miles east of the town, learned to play the game over the links at Musselburgh while attending Loretto school. He was the last of the true gentlemen golfers and dominated the Amateur Championship for seven years from 1888, winning twice in 1889 and 1891 and runner-up 1888, 1890 and 1893. Laidlay was a member of a number of golf clubs and throughout his career won over 130 medals, many are on display at the British Golf Museum. In 1887 for example, he won 11 scratch medals at Prestwick, St Andrews, Hoylake and North Berwick. He played with an overlapping grip before Taylor or Vardon, the later is credited with popularising the grip. In 1899, Laidlay built Invereil House overlooking the eighth fairway on the West Links as his residence.

Dorothy Campbell went over to the United States in 1909 following her triumph at Birkdale and became the first woman to win the British and US amateurs in the same year.

Johnny Laidlay represented Scotland every year from 1902 until 1911, when he was fifty one. He also played cricket for Scotland, was a pioneer of wildlife photography and carved furniture for a hobby. Following the First World War, he moved to Sunningdale where his former caddie Jack White was the professional and called his house 'Auldhame' after his family estate at Seacliff, North Berwick. Benjamin Hall Blyth was captain of Tantallon Golf Club in 1896-98. He was also captain of the Royal Liverpool Club (1885) and a life member of the Royal and Ancient Club. Hall Blyth was an engineer like his father also called Benjamin Hall Blyth who founded the firm of Blyth & Cunningham, which eventually became Blyth & Blyth. Hall Blyth Jnr. was a consultant engineer to the Caledonian, North British and Great North of Scotland Railway companies. He was responsible for extending the North Berwick branch line to include stations at Aberlady, Luffness and Gullane. He was also President of the Scottish Football Union in 1875-76. Hall Blyth is credited with securing the transference of the Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers from Musselburgh to Muirfield and will always be associated with the acquisition of the Braid Hills as a municipal golf course by the citizens of Edinburgh. As captain of Tantallon Golf Club he supported the creation of the Amateur Championship and was one of the original members of the new Rules of Golf committee in 1897, serving as its chairman. His father Benjamin Hall Blyth (1819-1866) also had a long association with North Berwick. He built Kaimend House overlooking the famous Redan hole on the West Links as his residence and on his death he bequeathed enough funds to secure the building of the North Berwick Abbey Church in 1868. Tantallon Golf Club instigated the first inter-club golf tournament in East Lothian, played at Gullane in September 1864. At that time there were six golf clubs in the county, and four took part. They were Dirleton Castle and the East Lothian Club, both playing over Gullane Links; Thorntree from Prestonpans Links and Tantallon, each sending four representatives. The competitors met at Steven's Turf Inn (now Kirklands) and the prizes were raised by a sweep of 5/- from each competitor. John Gourlay, the famous ballmaker from Musselburgh was umpire and Willie Park the clubmaker was President for the day. Play started at 11 am and there was a large gallery of spectators. At the end of the second round W. Carse and W. Nicol (Thorntree) were still in, along with W. Craven (Dirleton Castle) and D. Smith (Tantallon). In the third round the two Thorntree players won their matches, and instead of playing the final round, Nicol and Carse divided the prize money. The East Course at North Berwick was originally nine-holes laid out in 1894 by the landowner Sir Walter Hamilton-Dalrymple. The Burgh Golf Club was established on 9th June 1906 and the following year James Braid supervised the extension of the course to 18 holes. In 1934 the Burgh Golf Club adopted the name 'Glen Golf Club'. During WW2 large sections of the East Course were commandeered by the Ministry of Agriculture and ploughed over for the production of food. Following the conflict, Philip Mackenzie Ross restored the course which was reopened in March 1949. Mackenzie Ross resided at 17 Hamilton Road in North Berwick and during the 1950s was responsible for redesigning the Ailsa course at Turnberry.

the caddie ......

The name 'caddie' is French for Cadet (junior) and was used in 18th century Scotland to describe a messenger or errand-boy. Originally the Caddies were a semi-official band of porters and messengers who hung about the market cross in the High Street, Edinburgh, touting and picking up what work they could. They carried luggage, took messages, directed visitors around town and were acquainted with the 'low life'. There is a 'Cadie Society' Poor Box on display in the Peoples Story Museum in the Canongate, Edinburgh. The only way for the boys in the town to learn the game was play the course in the evening with one club and a ball after the members had retired to the clubhouse. Often the club was shortened and the grip removed so when they played a full shot the hickory shaft would slip out of their fingers and travel further than the ball. As the caddie was obliged to give all his earnings to his mother, it was his winnings from betting among the caddies that paid for his first set of clubs. Gambling on their ability gave the caddie the confidence they could compete against their peers. Moving up the ladder from caddie to licensed professional on the West Links allowed them to play golf everyday and their game improved dramatically. In the 1860s there were over two dozen professional tournaments around the country and this had doubled by the 1870s with prize money averaging twenty-five pounds. With the introduction of the cheaper gutty ball the game became more accessible. This significant move away from only the privileged gentry playing the game towards the caddie, made golf in Scotland the game of the people, which it remains to this today. The other route to the professional ranks was by serving a five year apprenticeship as a club maker with Ben Sayers & Son. At the age of eighteen years they could apply to join, the artisan Bass Rock Golf Club and receive a handicap. Winning the club scratch medal was their passport to being appointed a golf club pro and emigrating to America, Canada, Europe and Australia.

US Open champions, Willie Anderson and Fred McLeod lived in the same stair at 98 High Street when they were teenagers in 1893.

The first Open Championship at Prestwick was a competition for invited professionals. Prior to the event a letter was sent to North Berwick Golf Club requesting that ' All clubs were invited to send two entrants and the competitors must be known, honest and respected caddies '. Only eight took part on 17th October 1860 and just before noon they gathered in the Red Lion and signed a sheet of paper stipulating the rules. Before darkness fell the players had completed three rounds of 12 holes and the winner was Willie Park with a total of 174. Old Tom Morris was two shots back and Andrew Strath was third. The scoring was so high that it encouraged amateurs to think they could compete. The following year some amateurs were included so the tournament has remained 'Open' ever since. The Caddie Superintendent J. Crawford was paid from April to October 30/- a week and from October to April 15/- a week. When Crawford was appointed Starter, George Thomson became Caddie Master and then followed as Starter for many years. During the 1890s the caddies were organised by the Green Committee, who applied the rules of employment. The fee for the younger caddies was quite considerable and encouraged truancy and gambling. When the system of Inspection of Schools was set up in 1840 truancy from school to caddie became less of a problem. Even though it is recorded in the 1880s when a large golf meeting was held, the neighbouring schools at Dirleton and Gullane were forced to close due to the level of absentees. At a meeting of the North Berwick School Board in April 1891 the clerk reported several cases where boys had been suspended from school for acting as golf caddies. Various misdemeanors were logged in the Caddie Master's book, the most frequent suspension was for 'refusing to carry clubs'. This occurred when a gentlemen golfer arrived who was deemed to be 'mean' for not offering a tip when the round was complete. The next caddie to be called and refused to come forward was disciplined. Other entries included, Dan Kenny suspended for four days for canvassing for work in the car park. (1897); James Souter suspended for three days after a complaint from George Dalziel who engaged Souter as his caddie, before Souter went off to caddie for Jack White (professional) (1893); Alex Lountain caught interfering with the rabbit traps. (1899); The Arundel twins were both suspended in 1904. James for three days after defacing the caddie shelter and John was banned for a month after stealing a golf ball. David Stephenson was caught chasing sheep on the Ladies Links and following a visit to his house by Tom Anderson, the head greenkeeper, Stephenson was suspened for almost a year (1892). William Merriles was caught carrying clubs during school hours and when asked by the greenkeeper for his license he stated his mother had burnt it. The following day he was caught again carrying clubs, and was put off the links and reported to the Clerk of the School Board (1892).

Rule XL. Caddies are not allowed to come within the chain enclosure of the Club-House on any pretence whatever. Members will therefore, when it is inconvenient to bring their Clubs into the Club-House themselves, be careful to instruct their Caddies to hand their Clubs to the servant at the back door of the Club-House. North Berwick New Club - Rules and Regulations 1893

Many of the caddies were fishermen who turned their hand to carrying clubs during the season, including Robert Millar, Sandy Smith and Robert Johnstone. Robert Millar was one of the first to be employed as a caddie on the West Links in the days of the gutta-percha ball. By 1893 he had given up the fishing and was employed full time as a licensed professional and caddie. Rev. John Kerr wrote about Millar in his Golf Book of East Lothian ' Were his wondrous scores authenticated, he might be set down as the record holder of the green! ' Another local character was Alexander 'Sandy' Smith a fisherman, like his father John Smith. Sandy married Mary Brown from Inveresk in 1861 and they lived in Law Road, North Berwick. Sandy regularly caddied for Edward Blyth and Amateur Champion Robert Maxwell. Robert Johnstone was a master of all trades, primarily a green keeper, sometimes a professional and caddie. His claim to fame was during the Open Championship at Muirfield in 1906, he had a hole-in-one at the 14th. He played with only one club throughout the championship - an adjustable head club. His sons John and Robert joined the professionals and took the game to South Africa and California. As the popularity of golf increased at North Berwick many caddies travelled from Musselburgh for work including such famous characters as John 'Fiery' Carey and Big Harry Crawford. Fiery got his name because of his ruddy complexion, and he was one of the first to be described as a professional caddie. Always dressed in a Scotch bonnet with streamers floating behind, he carried the clubs loose, out of the bag, beneath his arm. 'Big Crawford' lived at 9 Market Place, and was a giant of a man who stood head and shoulders above his contemporaries. Crawford was described as a forceful character who gave expression to his opinions with a rugged outspokenness that gave him a distinctive place among his peers. Harry Crawford commanded considerable respect and was quite at home in the company of many of the distinguished visitors to the West Links. For many years he acted as caddie to the Right Hon. A.J. Balfour, and Ben Sayers engaged him for most of his big stake matches. Harry Crawford was born in Musselburgh in 1835 and as the golfers migrated down the coast in the 1870s he moved to North Berwick where he resided until his death in 1909. One of the highlights of his career was caddying for A. J. Balfour when he played himself in at St Andrews as captain of the Royal and Ancient Club. Latterly Crawford was keeper of the ginger beer stand facing the ninth tee on the West Links. He was buried in Inveresk Churchyard where many of the old Musselburgh golfers were laid to rest. In 1910, the caddies on the West Links contributed to a Caddies Provident Fund and in 1913 to a Caddie's Clubmaking Fund. That year there was an account from clubmaker James Watt for 34 lessons @ 2 shillings each. By 1922 when David Henderson was caddie master on the West Links, a first class caddie earned 2/6d per round, and was allowed to work 12 rounds in a week. Three rounds a day were possible in summer which meant 54/- for a first class man and 27/- for a second class man. Boys over 12 years earned a shilling per round. Casual caddies could earn 2 to 3 pounds a week from June to October. Only 20 caddies were required up to June, but 70 to 110 from September to late October. Eighteen caddies were retained throughout the winter months.

the west links ....

The West Links golf course is now in the centre of the town, but at one time the links land marked the town boundary. The North Berwick clubhouse which was opened in 1880 was built on the site of the Abbey Toll House where travellers entering the town from the west paid road tax, this tax was abolished in 1869. When the Burgh Police Act of 1892 was passed this gave to places like North Berwick the powers of enlarging their boundaries and purchasing ground for golf or other recreations. The boundary was extended and the town now surrounds the golf course. The West Links was originally six holes, before a seventh was added. Edward L. I. Blyth wrote about the course when he first played at North Berwick in 1856. At that time the first tee was between 100 to 150 yards east of the present pro's shop which was then a formidable bunker. The first drive had to land short of a burn crossing the fairway and the first green 'Pointgarry-Out' was seldom reachable in two, making it a tough opening par four. The second 'Sea Hole', was much like today with the 'horse' a small mound in the middle of the fairway. The third green lay east of the stone wall known as the March Dyke and the fourth (present sixteenth) had a table top green surrounded on three sides with a ditch. The fifth (present seventeenth) the golfer had to negotiate St Ann's Quarry with sheer sides and two feet of water in the base, before reaching the green which was shared with the first at 'Pointgarry-In'. The sixth, named the 'Gasworks Hole' lay to the right of the present eighteenth fairway and the Home Hole, a par four with the green near the clubhouse was often reached in three. There were no tee boxes during this period, the rules simply stated that the ball be teed up on a small mound of sand six-club lengths from the last hole played. It was not until 1875 that a separate teeing ground was provided. Edward L. I. Blyth (1854-1886) was a member of Tantallon Golf Club and winner of the Club Medal in 1862 and 1863. Blyth was the uncle of B. Hall Blyth Jun. (mentioned above) and both were directors in the family engineering business Blyth and Blyth Associates in George Street, Edinburgh. The course was extended to nine-holes during the winter of 1868, which then included the famous 'Redan' (6th) hole. The old quarry opposite St Ann's was filled in 1862. The course at that time was described as uncared for with no tins in the holes which looked like birds nests. They were also deep from the habit of taking sand from the hole to tee up the ball. There were few caddies available and a party could play all day without any other golfers being visible. Players like Sir Robert Hay, Sir David Baird, Earl of Wemyss and Sir Hew Hume Campbell had the green to themselves.

Cross bunker at 14th 'Perfection' - 1918

Ben Sayers on the beach beyond the 1st green.

In an article in Golf Illustrated in 1915, Dorothy Campbell reminisced about the West Links, she said "the 'pins' were simply sticks of wood to which skins of scarlet worsted were attached. Every Saturday night, my mother told me, the sticks were collected and brought in, so that the townspeople might not see them and thus be distracted from the sanctity of their Sabbath thinking. There were no tees, no markers, no putting greens as we know them today, no tins for holes. Fresh holes had to be cut in the 'greens' every Monday morning. Each golfer as he came along took sand from each hole in order to tee up his ball preparatory to driving down the next fairway. Thus, by Saturday night all the holes were as big as wash-tubs." In 1877, under the supervision of John R. Whitecross and the Green Committee the links were extended to eighteen holes with many under 200 yards, suiting the balls and equipment of the day. At the opening of the new course Ben Sayers and Willie Fernie played a match against Jack Simpson and Andrew Kirkaldy. Although the course was short, it was practically all hazards with a sandy lie in the bents preferable to being wedged under the numerous walls around the 'Shipka Pass'. The bunker on the ninth (present seventh fairway) was named 'Whitecross' after the club secretary who was appointed in 1864, and retained that position for 21 years. Many of the small putting greens were within reach from the tee so it did not matter what sort of condition the fairways were in. The extension cost £300. The 14th a par 3, was described by Horace Hutchinson as one of the most sensational shots in golf with the high sandhills in front of the teeing ground curtailing the horizon and the putting green in front of the existing ridge and bunker crossing the fairway. He said you have to harden your heart to drive as it seems, into the midst of the German Ocean; but instead if you have played on the line laid down for you, you will find that you have carried a little corner of the beach, which bays in, and are lying on the putting green of a hole protected by sandhills from the waves which were splashing on the other side of them. If your heart fails and you drive to what looks something more like terra firma, to the right, you will find yourself wedged up against the stone wall of Carlekemp wood. The 15th tee close to the previous green required a cleek or iron shot which must pitch over another wall, so far and no further - and then a full drive or brassy shot to carry just over a bunker escarpment not inaptly called 'Redan'. The remaining holes were as before with crowds of children and nursemaids to contend with during the summer season. The shortness of the holes and the little pitch shots required over walls gave the course its beauty as well as its weakness with congestion and long waiting between shots. At the Autumn Meeting on Wednesday and Thursday 5th and 6th September 1877 the members played their new 18 hole course for the first time. The minutes noted 'The round gave great satisfaction, infact nothing could surpass the putting greens which were simply perfection'. Fourteen couples competed for the gold medal and the winner was Gilbert Mitchell Innes with a score of 80. Following the luncheon prepared in the marquee by Mr Johnston from the Royal Hotel the members played their foursome matches. Some of the golfing families who played the course were the Blyth's, the Bloxsom's, the Chamber's, the Stevenson's, the Lyall's and the Dunn's, particularly Willie Dunn, US champion and John D Dunn the well known golf coach both learned to play the game at North Berwick. The seemingly random size for the four and a quarter inch diameter hole was just that, it happened to be the width of the implement invented by Robert Gray in 1829 and first used to cut the holes at Musselburgh. In 1893 the R&A made the size mandatory.

Rule VI - LIFTING OF BREAK CLUBS, ETC. All loose impediments within twelve inches of the ball may be removed when the ball lies on turf. When a ball lies in a bunker, quarry or rocks, sand or the road, nothing whatever can be touched, and the player must take care in aiming at it that he do not alter or improve its position; if he do so he losses the hole. When a ball lies on clothes, or within a club length of a washing tub, the clothes may be drawn from under the ball, and the tub may be removed. A ball struck fast in wet ground or sand may be taken out and replaced loosely in the hole it has made. Rule VII - BALL IN WATER, OR IN A HOLE, ETC. If the ball be half covered or more with water, or lies in a hole where a club cannot reach it, or in a rabbit scrape, or in an old or supernumerary hole made for the purpose of golfing, the player may take it out, drop it behind the hazard, play with an iron and lose a stroke. If the ball be driven into the sea, it shall be taken out by the party and placed a club length in front thereof, he playing with an Iron and losing a stroke; if the ball be not recovered by the party, he shall lose the hole. Rules of Tantallon Golf Club - 1853. (Thomas Dall, Secy.)

In 1895, the course was lengthened west of the Eil Burn over Ferrygate and Linkhouse farmland, under the supervision of head green keeper Tom Anderson. He was instructed by the Green Committee to obtain as much turf as was required from Mr. Thomson at Muirfield costing 8d a yard. Many of the new holes required a long driver off the tee, rather than an iron or cleek as before and often a wooden club was required for the second shot. The course was widened at it's narrowest part the 'Shipka Pass' and was now three times as broad. For the first time 'Perfection' came into play. Like the old links, accurate approach play was still the outstanding feature of the course which measured three and-a-half miles. In 1895, at the opening of the extended course, a tent was erected beside the eighth green for a ginger beer stall where Neil McLeod was appointed to organised the refreshments. His youngest son Fred McLeod won the US Open in 1908, but sadly Neil McLeod died in 1897 and did not share in his son's success. Harry Crawford took over the ginger beer tent before it became a more permanent feature constructed of timber, selling sweets, aerated water and golf balls. Crawford's requested to sell golf clubs was turned down. In 1907, as a reaction to the new golf balls and equipment, nine new bunkers were constructed including one to the north of the 5th, two placed to the right of the 9th fairway and one before the 'Pit' where a cist had been unearthed. The 4th green was relaid and enlarged while the 10th tee was moved back some twenty yards. The work was carried out by head greenkeeper Alex Wright. He was replaced by James Preston from Cassionbury Park in 1908 when Wright was appointed the first head greenkeeper at the newly opened Stoke Poges Golf Club in Buckinghamshire. Stoke Poges now Stoke Park Golf Club was known for its basket flag sticks which were copied at Merion Golf Club in Pennsylvania. In 1932, additional ground was leased in the area known as 'The Bents' which extended along the seashore to the north of the old 10th and 11th holes. This allowed for an extension to the 9th fairway with a new green formed. The construction of a new par 3, 10th hole with the tee built on top of the dunes. The 11th hole, also with an elevated teeing ground, formed a new par 5, running parallel to the dunes. These new alterations were carried out under the supervision of Ben Sayers and Colonel Hutchison. In 1953, the proprietor of the Westerdunes Hotel offered to purchase the ground west of the March Dyke from the landowner Biel Estates. The Hotel proposed to alter the layout with the present 8th tee becoming the first and extending the course west over the former Fidra golf course at Yellowcraig. These discussions were at an advanced stage before the Town Council intervened and purchased the land in January 1954 for £9,700, safeguarding the rights of the local Golf Clubs and community. Today part of the golf course is on common land and part local authority owned, measuring 6458 yards with a par of 71. Charles Stevenson the cousin of Robert Louis Stevenson wrote about the holidays they shared at North Berwick. The Longskelly beach and Eil Burn (called the Cressy Burn in RLS's novel Catriona) was a favourite play area. In the 1860s the burn lay a mile west of the end of the golf course but today the Eil Burn cuts through the 7th and 12th fairways and is an integral part of the course.

the professional .....

The professional hierarchy could be divided into three sections, the keeper of the green; the professional club-maker; the professional player who would eke a living in the club-makers' shop and play during the season in foursomes with amateurs; the professional caddie who would be a professional player if they played well enough. The Keeper of the Green was engaged by the North Berwick Club with an annual salary to look after the ground, supervise a number of men to roll, sweep and mow the greens and fill up iron-divot marks. He collected the visitors green fees and was available to play the links at a set fee whether with skilled players or in the instruction of the game. He was supplied with a building or outhouse for a club-makers' shop where he would employ several men and work himself at spare times. He organized the 'professional players' to play with members, their guests and visitors or carrying their bags. In 1894 a first class caddie received 1/7d and a second class caddie received 1/1d, with a penny being retained for club funds. A professional was paid 3/6d a round while a teaching professional got 2/6d per hour. At the beginning of the twentieth century there were ten licensed golf professionals working on the West Links at North Berwick. Six were engaged in giving lessons while the remainder were available to play with the members and visitors. The Green Committee which approved the licenses was made up from representatives of the four golf clubs playing the West Links. The license was in fact a metal badge with a number attached to identify the individual who was sanctioned to act as a professional or caddie and to charge the appropriate fee. If the professional had no engagements he was allowed to work as a caddie. Although the Green Committee had the final decision, it was the Starter who was the power behind the throne. He had the authority to recommend that an individual be awarded a license as a caddie or professional. He also had the ability to remove the license from anyone displaying bad behaviour. He was also known to have given the poorest caddie a shilling when times were hard. The first recorded 'challenge' match at North Berwick was in 1844 between Willie Dunn and Allan Robertson, played over three courses, St Andrews, Musselburgh and North Berwick. The earliest foursome match on the West Links was played between Allan Robertson and Tom Morris from St Andrews and the Dunn brothers Willie and Jamie from Musselburgh. The matches were played each year from 1847 to 1850 over Musselburgh, St Andrews, Leven and North Berwick. In 1849, the match was played over three courses with a purse of £400. Following the matches at Musselburgh and St Andrews the game was all-square leaving the final result to be decided at North Berwick. Each side had it's own band of supporters, but with Musselburgh being closer to the links at North Berwick they had a larger following, lead by Douglas Gourlay the well known ball maker. The crowd were so anxious to see where the balls had landed, no sooner were the shots played, the whole crowd ran forward in a wild dash to see who had the best lie, shouting and waving vigorously in support of their side. They played 5 rounds of the 7 hole course at North Berwick with an extra hole being added in the final round making 36 holes. The Dunn's were favourites with the backers as they held the led 4 up and 8 to play. Robertson and Morris fought back winning four of the next 6 holes. At the penultimate hole (the present 17th hole) the Dunn's second shot landed on the cart track while the ball of the St Andrews men came to rest in the bunker in front of the green. The Dunn's took three shots to get out of the cart track, eventually using the back of the club to move the ball. Roberston and Morris won the hole and when Robertson sunk his putt at the last for a half, the tall figure of Sir David Baird, umpire for the day, then declared the St Andrews men winners by 1 hole. The North Berwick Town Council realised how important golf was to the local economy and encouraged the 'challenge' matches played between the leading professionals. They attracted thousands of spectators to the town and the newspaper's dispatched their reporters to cover the story which increased the public interest. In 1872 the Town Council offered Young Tom Morris and Davie Strath, twenty-five pounds each to play a match at North Berwick. This was in effect appearance money which would have been frowned upon had the Council not kept the matter quiet. In 1888, when the amateur matches became more popular the Town Council organised a scratch golf tournament, open to amateurs, and Johnny Laidlay beat Horice Hutchinson in the final in front of a huge gallery. In 1875, Willie Park and his brother Mungo challenged Old Tom Morris and his son to a match over North Berwick links which was a repeat of the match from the previous year. They had arranged to take part in an Open tournament at North Berwick on Friday 3rd September and agreed to play the foursome match the following day for twenty-five pounds. The Morrises travelled by train from St Andrews to Leuchars, then changed trains for Burntisland where they boarded a ferry crossing the Firth of Forth to Granton. A short train journey to Edinburgh Waverley Station and another down the coast to North Berwick. The journey took over six hours to complete. The Open tournament was backed by several gentlemen visitors who subscribed to the purse which attracted twenty professionals. At the end of the third round of nine holes each, Young Tom Morris won the first prize of £7, Willie Park was second and received £3, while Davie Strath was third and pocketed £2. Late in the day Robert Cosgrove entered a scorecard one stroke better, but Mr. Home, an Edinburgh solicitor and umpire for the day disqualified him for 'marking his card incorrectly'. Willie Dunn the local pro was also disqualified for the same reason. Bob Cosgrove protested but to no avail, and a few years later Cosgrove married a North Berwick girl and they lived in Melbourne Place where he worked as a golf ball maker. Old Tom and his son took lodgings in the Dalrymple Arms Hotel in Quality Street, and it was reported on the Saturday morning that Old Tom enjoyed a swim in the West Bay before walking to the West Links where the match started at 11 am. The Morris's took an early lead and were four-up but with three holes remaining of the final round, the Park's brought the match back to all square. The Morris's won the penultimate hole and the last was halved giving the St Andrews men victory by one hole. Immediately on the conclusion of the match, Peter Brodie, the telegraph officer handed Old Tom a telegram with the news that Young Tom's wife was seriously ill in St. Andrews following the birth of their child. John C. B. Lewis, a 22 year old Edinburgh businessman in the gallery, offered to take the Morrises over the Firth of Forth to St Andrews in his twenty-eight foot ketch anchored in North Berwick harbour. As the yacht slipped its moorings a second telegram arrived from St Andrews which read 'Mrs Morris had a son, both mother and child are dead'. On reaching St Andrews they broke the sad news to Young Tom and the effect was so devastating he never recovered. His health deteriorated over the next three months and he died of an internal haemorrhage on Christmas morning, at the age of 24 years. At the same meeting, Willie Park and Davie Strath played a single of two rounds which Park won by one hole. On the Monday another match was arranged between Park and Strath over four rounds with a purse of £10 which Strath won by two holes. Three days later Willie Park won the Open Championship at Prestwick for the fourth time. The earliest recorded greenkeeper on the West Links was George Todd living at Castlemains in 1836 and later Nicol Wright was paid 30 shillings per annum to look after the course. From 1856 until 1864 there were no greenkeepers. In 1869 Tom Dunn returned, he was previously at North Berwick in 1864. Davie Strath was appointed the first 'Keeper of the Green' in 1876, then James Beveridge (1880), before Tom Dunn returned in November 1881 and remained for eight years. In 1869, Tom Dunn was the first professional to enter the Open Championship from North Berwick. He entered the championship again from the town in 1886. Strath, Dunn and Beveridge were all talented golfers, fine club makers and teachers.

David Strath first played the West Links in October 1869 and for many years was a regular partner of local golfers and businessmen Peter Brodie and John Whitecross. When the position of Keeper Of The Green was created Strath was the natural choice. Although it has been suggested that Young Tom Morris was also offered the position. Davie Strath was appointed Custodian of the Green on 5th September 1876 and was paid ten pounds per annum as the North Berwick Golf Club's portion of his salary. He lived with his wife Ann (Agnes) in Westgate, where his two children were born. Strath was runner-up in the Open to Young Tom Morris in 1870 and 1872 and in 1876 he tied for the Championship at St Andrews with Bob Martin but refused to play off because of a rules dispute. This was one of the most controversial Opens of all time as someone had forgotten to book the golf course and players were competing amongst the regular public players. The St Andrews Citizen reported competitors went out in 'a very straggling manner'. A protest was lodged against Strath alleging he played his approach to the 17th green and struck a spectator. The Royal & Ancient ordered the replay but Strath demurred and said if a decision wasn't taken forthwith, he wouldn't return. Martin walked the course alone and was hailed as the victor. Davie Strath occupied a timber hut situated between the old Toll House and the 18th green where he repaired clubs and sold golf balls. Strath suffered from consumption and facing another Scottish winter was advised to travel to Australia where the climate would alleviate an illness which also claimed the lives of his four brothers. It is thought unlikely that such advice would have been given by Dr. John Crombie, the family medical practitioner at Park House in North Berwick, when alternative treatments were available in Europe. On 14th October 1878 Strath sailed from Liverpool with a first class ticket on the S. S. Eurynome, the fastest vessel of the time. During the 84-day voyage he contracted acute bronchial laryngitis and arrived in Melbourne in a poor state of health. He died 20 days later on 28th January 1879 aged 29 years. Strath died in a house on Royal Terrace, Fitzroy in the Carlton district of Melbourne, but due to a clerical error his death was recorded as 'David Struth' and his remains buried in an unmarked grave in the Presbyterian section of the Melbourne General Cemetery. It was not until 2005 that two golf historians discovered the truth and were able to erect a headstone over his grave. Davie Strath's wife Agnes Ronald, (Ann) and their two children Ronald (2 years) and Daisy (1 year) remained in North Berwick. Ann died less than a year later on 8th January 1880. The offical cause of her death was peritonitis but more likely she died of a broken heart, aged 36 years. Her orphaned children were taken to Dundee to be looked after by relatives. Ann Strath died in Point Garry Cottage, the building was later converted into a clubhouse for Tantallon Golf Club which it remains to this day. James Beveridge was appointed clubmaster when the North Berwick New Clubhouse was completed in June 1880. His mother was the cook and along with his younger brother Daniel they resided in the staff quarters in the clubhouse. James Beveridge came from St Andrews and was working in North Berwick as a club maker. He joined the Bass Rock Golf Club and won their scratch medal in 1877.

Left: James Beveridge circa 1896. Above: Advert from 'Golf' magazine, January 1898. Right: William Kelly, Greenkeeper and Starter on the West Links.

James Beveridge followed Davie Strath as keeper of the green, and his timber workshop was sitated in the quarry below the first green, where he made clubs and balls. In August 1879, 28 year old Beveridge organised one of the most successful tournaments to be held on the West Links. Twenty eight professionals took part including the top ten golfers in Scotland. The first pairing of Jamie Anderson (St Andrews) and Bob Ferguson (Musselburgh) played the best golf, but the largest gallery followed the old-timers Tom Morris and Willie Park. Bob Ferguson an expert with an iron to hold the plateau greens at North Berwick won the tournament. The following year he won the first of his three Open championships in succession In 1882, James Beveridge, moved to the Royal Isle of Wight Club and in 1894 he was persuaded by Judge Horace Russell to emigrate to America where he was appointed club maker and instructor to the Shinnecock Hills Golf Club on Long Island. In 1898, the club advertised in the British press for a 'first class man' to give lessons during the summer and James Beveridge was asked to assist with the selection. Following dozens of applications Willie Smith from Carnoustie was chosen. James Beveridge worked from a shop in Southampton (NY) where he died on 25th June 1899. When Beveridge arrived in the United States there were only twenty five professionals and he is recognised today as one of America's golfing pioneers. Tom Dunn returned to North Berwick in 1881 and was living with his family in Dunedin Lodge, 60 Forth Street where his daughter was born. His second son Seymour according to the registrar was born on the West Links. Tom's children attended North Berwick Public School until the age of twelve when John and Seymour were sent to Clydesdale College in Hamilton to continue their private education. John studied up to the age of 15 years with a view to becoming a doctor and sat the entrance examine for Edinburgh University. Tom Dunn's younger brother Willie Dunn Jnr. moved to North Berwick where he apprenticed as a clubmaker. Willie was 15 years old when he played his first match against Ben Sayers at North Berwick and won. In 1882, Willie partnered Sayers in a money match against the two Fernies at St Andrews. The first day was halved but the second day Dunn and Sayers won the match by five holes. Willie entered the Open Championship for the first time from North Berwick in 1883 and again in 1884, and 1886. In 1886, Willie Dunn Jnr defeated Willie Park at North Berwick going the first round in 70 to Park's 71 and established a new record for eight holes in 28 strokes. When news of his brilliant play reached the town the shopkeepers closed their shops and made for the links to watch the second round which resulted in a win for Dunn at the thirteen hole. Willie Dunn Jnr. immigrated to the USA in 1891 and most historians now recognise the outstanding influence he had on American golf during the early years of the sport. In 1889, Tom Dunn left for France without informing the Green Committee of his absence as his son John Dunn had taken over his father's duties at the Club. The committee also received complaints that Tom Dunn in his capacity as club master at North Berwick was failing to attend to his duties. When the committee received Dunn's request to have his house wallpaper and painted this was the final straw and they terminated his employment. Tom Dunn replied on 8th November 1889, " I understand my services as custodian of the private green are no longer required. I accept my departure from North Berwick could have been misunderstood as an abandonment of my position as green keeper, but my doctor insisted".

In 1887, the old timber workshop beside the first tee was taken down and a new club makers workshop constructed, which is the present professionals shop. Built by Peter Whitecross to plans drawn up by Tom Dunn and paid for by the landowner Sir Walter Hamilton-Dalrymple. There is an outstanding example of a 1885 mid-spoon made by Tom Dunn at North Berwick in the British Golf Museum. Ben Sayers took over as club master for two years and was in attendance at all the North Berwick New Club meetings. In 1889, Dunn was appointed to Tooting Bec G.C. where he laid out the Furzedown course. In 1889, Tom Anderson was second assistant green keeper to Tom Dunn on the West Links, before Dunn left and Davie Plenderleith took over. Plenderleith resigned after a few months and in February 1890 Tom Anderson was appointed head green keeper and his wages increased to 30/- per week. He was joined by George Hunter (1892-1894). In 1895, Tom Anderson carried out the work to extend the course beyond the Eil Burn and create many new holes including the 14th named 'Perfection'. According to John Kerr credit for the layout of the 14th hole was due to 'the fertile imagination of the energetic young secretary of the Greens Committee', John McCulloch. John and his brother Sydney were members of Tantallon Golf Club, both wining the Club Medal, Jack in 1889, 1897 and Sydney in 1892. The final of the Tantallon Club Medal in 1894 finished in a tie between Jack McCulloch and A.M. (Sandy) Ross. In those days the crowd watching the play-off was so large it had to be kept in order with a rope. Jack played in the 1892 Open Championship at Muirfield and during that period he wrote a book entitled 'Golf in the year 2000'. His father was a Bank Agent before North Berwick had a bank, and his office was situated at 110 High Street. Jack's father David McCulloch was conferred Honorary Life Member of North Berwick New Club and was appointed the first manager of the British Linen Bank and the family lived above the bank at 23, Westgate. At the age of 25 years Jack was appointed secretary of the Greens Committee, supervising the extension of the West Links golf course in 1895. The majority of the old course remained as before with the new holes laid out beyond the Eil Burn, but it was the 14th 'Perfection' which gained the most praise. Apart for the railway sleepers (ties) being removed from the back of the cross bunker on the 14th, the hole remains to this day as Jack McCulloch's 'fertile imagination' designed it. In 1900, Jack married Eveline Campbell, the sister of Amateur Champion Dorothy Campbell and they moved to Bearsden where Jack was Legal Secretary to the Standard Life Insurance Co. Jack died in 1943 at Lochearnhead but he will always be associated with the 14th hole 'Perfection' at North Berwick. When the new course was complete, Tom Anderson was given five guineas and his assistant Jimmy Litster from Dirleton a pound for laying out the extension to the committee's instructions. Tom Anderson resigned on 17th February 1900 and Bob Dickson was appointed head greenkeeper with Robert Johnstone Snr. and Robert Kelly as his assistants. Hugh Hamilton was a member of Anderson's greenkeeping staff, his father also called Hugh was born in North Berwick and the family lived in the Well Tower off Kirk Ports. Hugh Hamilton was appointed head gardener for Andrew Carnegie the industrialist and philanthropist before moving to Royal Portrush (1900-1904) in Ireland. In 1904, Hamilton took over from Tom Morris as custodian of the links at St Andrews with a wage of £3 per week. He was not permitted to have a shop , carrying on club-making or work on other courses. It was Hamilton who created many of the bunkers at St Andrews and lengthened the course in reaction to the Haskell ball, he also extended the Jubilee course to 18 holes in 1905. At Tom Morris's funeral, Hamilton as Links Superintendent followed the hearse carrying the Royal and Ancient Golf Club silver club and balls draped in black velvet. Hugh Hamilton wrote a chapter in the book 'Golf Greens and Green Keeping' entitled 'Treatment and Upkeep of Seaside Links'. The book edited by Horace G. Hutchinson in 1906 included a series of articles written by among others James Braid and Harold Hilton. The book continues to be used by golf course superintendents and has become a collectors item selling for over $15000 a copy. Hamilton who latterly lived at 12 Forth Street, North Berwick parted company with the Royal and Ancient Golf Club in September 1911, after being warned by the committee about his excessive drinking. Bob Dickson born 1865 in North Berwick, moved to Dollar Golf Club before being appointed head greenkeeper at Dunbar Golf Club in 1906. He left for Headingley Golf Club in Leeds in 1909. His reference for the position of head greenkeeper was Jack White from North Berwick, the pro at Sunningdale and Hugh Hamilton the custodian of St Andrews links who Dickson worked with for eight years at North Berwick. Completing the Sunningdale connection, Harry S. Colt was re-designing the bunkers at Headingley when Dickson arrived. The following year Jock L. Hutchison from North Berwick was appointed head professional at Headingley which must have been more than just a coincidence.

Ben Sayers was primarily a ball maker until 1895 when he began to employ club makers in his workshop at 14, Quality Street (on the site of the present Tourist Information Centre). Sayers had a reputation for making good quality gutta percha golf balls which he supplied to Thornton & Co. a sports equipment store in Edinburgh. Club makers were associated with the professional ranks and were often refused membership of a golf club. When Ben Sayers began to employ men solely as club makers the golf clubs relented and allowed them membership but they could not enter any club competitions. In 1894, Sayers constructed a timber workshop on the garden wall of Inchgarry House adjacent to the 18th tee on the West Links where he sold golf clubs and balls until 1918 when it was taken down. In 1912, Sayers opened a retail outlet at 21, Station Hill. As the hardship of WW1 began to bite and the club makers were conscripted into the armed forces, the shop in Station Hill was closed and Sayers business moved to the vacant workshop on the West Links. When Ben Sayers was invited to layout a new golf course it was the practise to take with him an assistant to hold the yardage marker. Sayers would then recommend that his young assistant be employed by the golf club as their green keeper and professional to supervise the new course as it matured. The assistant would have been just the latest to show promise as a golfer or club maker at North Berwick. The town was small and Sayers knew all the families. Over the years the licensed professionals on the West Links included Willie Dunn Snr., Willie Park, George Kay, Ben Sayers, Bob Ferguson, Davie Grant Snr, John Arundel (Meadowbrook C.C. MI), Willie Auchterlonie (Glen View IL), James Braid (Walton Heath), Alan Brodie (Lakeside VA), Benjamin N Campbell (Musselburgh) David Grant Jnr. (Dinard Club), Harry Gullane (Philadelphia C.C-1899), Peter Hendrie (Ulen C.C Indiana), James L. Hutchison (Philadelphia C.C-1900), John Johnstone (Port Elizabeth SA), Robert Johnstone (Seattle G.C. WA), Dan Kenny (North Toronto), Harry Logan (North Berwick), Arnaud Massy (La Nivelle), Robert Millar (Kalamazoo MI), James Milligan (Wyoming Valley C.C. PA), Robert Murray (Dresden), R.G.MacDonald (Indian Hill, Winnetka IL), Ben Sayers Jnr. (Wimbledon), James Souter (Tuxedo Park NY), William Stuart (Elderslie G.C. and Ralston G.C UK), George Thomson (Lenox MA), Robert Thomson (Romford), Willie Thomson (Riverton NJ), Philip Wynne (Tooting Bec), John Morton (Freeport C.C IL), Peter Purves (Essex Fells NJ), Thomas Stevenson, George Turnbull (Midlothian C.C. IL), Mungo Park Jnr. (Buenos Aires); Harry Turpie (Glenview IL), Jack White (Sunningdale), Alex Lumsden (Bristol and Clifton G.C), Richard Kelly (Royal Norwich G.C), Alex Stuart (Caernarvonshire G.C), Alex Marr (Wearside), John Thorburn (Kilmacolm G.C), James Kelly (Bramhall G.C), Alex Wilson (Lucerne C.C). Access more detailed information on the Golf Professionals and Club Makers listed above

Outside Hutchison's workshop circa 1894. Standing (Left): Tom Anderson greenkeeper, Standing (Right): James Crawford starter. Seated (Left to Right) Willie Parker, James H Hutchison clubmaker and George Thomson caddie master.

In an article in Golf Magazine in 1899, Willie Park Jnr. challenged Harry Vardon to a 72 hole match; two rounds at North Berwick (West Links) followed by two rounds at Vardon's home course at Ganton. Vardon eventually accepted the challenge and each man deposited a hundred pounds of his own money into the hands of the editor of Golf Magazine. The first round was played at North Berwick in July when over 9,000 spectators arrived by special trains to watch the match and it was reported that the local shopkeepers closed their premises to follow the afternoon round. The size of the gallery surprised the organisers as the Prince of Wales was visiting Edinburgh on the same day. Harry Vardon travelled to North Berwick with his brother Tom as his caddie, carrying the clubs in a new canvas bag that had recently come onto the market. Willie Park's caddied named 'Fiery' was of the old school and bunched the clubs under his arm. The links were so crowded that many could not see the green, and a white flag with a red letter P for Park, and a red flag with a white letter V for Vardon, was lifted in the air to inform the crowd which player won the hole. The referee for Park was Amateur Champion Freddie Tait and the forecaddie was Norman Hunter, the Cambridge University amateur golfer, while the umpire was B. Hall Blyth former captain of Tantallon G.C. Park played poorly throughout and over the double Vardon was the clear winner of what has now been recognised as the last true challenge match ever to take place. The following year Freddie Tait was killed in the Boer War, aged 30 years and Norman Hunter was killed in WW1 at Ypres on 16th June 1915, aged 36 years. He was a Lieutenant in the Royal Warwickshire Regiment. Seventeen year old, Dorothy Campbell was among the crowd watching the match between Vardon and Park at North Berwick and was taken by the size of the gallery and how well the enormous crowd behaved. Not realising that within a few years Campbell herself would play in front of 7,000 spectators, mostly dock labourers and miners, at Troon in the final of the 1907 Scottish championship, in which Frances Teacher from North Berwick defeated Campbell at the twenty-first hole. Throughout WW1 the professionals who remained in North Berwick had to make their wages during the months of June, July and August. Starting at 7 am, they could give as many as 12 lesson before dusk and earn 2/6 per hour. In 1923 the Town Council appointed Robert Thomson as golf professional on the Burgh course. Thomson was born in North Berwick in 1876 and was a licenced professional on the West Links. In 1903 and 1905 he finished in the top six in the Open Championship. In 1904, he replaced James Braid at Romford Golf Club. Five years later he returned to North Berwick and in 1909 won the Scottish Professional Championship. Robert 'Bob' Thomson represented Scotland in the Home Internationals from 1903-1912 and that year he was assistant to the International team captain James Hepburn from Carnoustie. The picture below of the 1909 Scottish Team at Deal, includes Robert Thomson and Ben Sayers's son who played from 1906 -1909.

Back Row Charlie Smith, Jimmy Braid, Jack White, Robert Thomson, Ben Sayers Front Row Ben Sayers Sen. Sandy Herd, George Duncan, Frank Coltart, Andrew Kirkaldy

the clubmaker ......

The original club-makers workshop was situated in the quarry close to the shore, below the first green where James Beveridge made clubs and balls. Later Willie Dunn Jnr. had a hut in this area where he repaired clubs. Willie Dunn Snr. was one of the first professionals to teach the game at North Berwick during the 1860s. He was greenkeeper at Blackheath in 1851, then moved to Leith Thistle in 1865, before settling with his family in North Berwick. He died at Millhill, Inveresk in 1878 at the age of 59 years. His eldest son Thomas Dunn was the first to occupy the small wooden workshop situated below the 18th tee on the wall of Inchgarry House. In 1887 a timber workshop was constructed in the hollow where the present professional's shop is situated. This was demolished two years later when the present building was erected to Tom Dunn's design. Willie Park Snr. spent two years as a club maker in the town (1873-75) before returning to Musselburgh. Ben Sayers, Robert Cosgrove and Davie Grant Snr. were the only ball makers in North Berwick. Prior to 1872 the golf balls were supplied by A & M Edington from their general store at 89-91 High Street. Displayed in the British Golf Museum is a Ball-Marker Press (circa 1890), manufactured by J. & A. Bridges at their North Berwick foundry. The other club makers were William Sutherland in Market Place, William S. Storie at the Marine Hotel and Henry Wilson at 6 Shore Street (Victoria Road). Wilson entered the Open Championship from North Berwick in 1884. When Tom Dunn returned to North Berwick in 1881 he was joined by his younger brother Willie Dunn Jnr. from Chingford and Charlie Gibson a 22 year old club maker from Musselburgh. Gibson rented a room from Ann Denholm at 42, Westgate and among the other boarders was North Berwick girl Helen Ramage who Gibson later married. It has been suggested that Charlie Gibson apprenticed under Willie Dunn Snr. before the latter died in 1878. Gibson certainly lived close to the Dunn family in the Millhill district of Inveresk in Musselburgh but there is no record of his training. In 1885, Jack White apprenticed as a club maker under Tom Dunn and Charlie Gibson at North Berwick. Willie Dunn Jnr. was asked by Horace Hutchinson in 1886 to take charge of the historic links of the Royal North Devon Golf Club at Westward Ho!. Willie was a popular figure in North Berwick. When he left for Devon in 1887 he was presented with a gold watch and chain, subscribed to by over a hundred North Berwick golfers. Two years later when Dunn left the North Devon club he recommended Charlie Gibson from North Berwick as his replacement. Bert Way was Dunn's apprentice at North Devon and when Dunn left Shinnecock Hills on Long Island, he recommended W.H. 'Bert' Way as his replacement. Jack White continued his friendship with Charlie Gibson and visited Westward Ho! on many occasions. In 1899, Willie Park Jnr. bought the property at 15 Beach Road, North Berwick for the staggering sum of £3,000 at the time, which he converted into an elegant shop on the ground floor and club makers workshop to the rear with the upper floor as his residence. He brought Robert Sullivan a club maker for Musselburgh to manage the business. Willie Park Jnr. was the first to patent a golf club, it had a concave face and the Patent No. 5042-1889. The idea was not new but Park monopolized the design for a considerable period. Park entered the Open Championship from North Berwick in 1899. When Willie Park Jnr. was asked to layout the course at Sunningdale he took with him Hugh MacLean from North Berwick. MacLean originally from Inverness was employed by Willie Park to supervise the construction of the course which was opened in 1901. Jack White was appointed professional at Sunningdale and in 1910 White recommended James Sheridan from North Berwick for the position of caddie-master. As boys at North Berwick Jack White and Jimmy Sheridan caddied for amateur champion Johnny Laidlay who retired to a house he called 'Auldhame' beside the Sunningdale course. MacLean stayed on as greenkeeper and Jimmy Sheridan was caddie-master for over 56 years and elected an Honorary Member of Sunningdale. Thomas Arundel a gardener, born in North Berwick in 1858 was the first local to enter the Open Championship in 1883. He was followed by Henry Wilson (Prestwick 1884); Andrew Anderson (Muirfield 1892); Alexander Stuart (Muirfield 1892); Alexander Lumsden (Prestwick 1893); Stuart L. Anderson (Prestwick 1893); Willie Thomson (Muirfield 1896); Harry Gullane (Muirfield 1896) Alex Marr (Muirfield 1901); John Johnstone (St Andrews 1905) and James Souter (Deal 1909). A significant improvement in club making came about with the introduction of the gutty ball, when instead of splicing the end, the hickory shaft was fitted into a hole in the club head made of a harder wood such as beech. With the increase in the popularity of iron heads many Scottish blacksmiths abandoned their other areas of trade for club making full time, calling themselves Cleek Makers. A set of clubs around 1900 might consist of a driver, long spoon, a brassie, short spoon, cleek, mashie, iron, iron niblick for bunkers and putter, although most golfers of the time usually played with five or six clubs. Some golfers even had baffies and bulgers. The bulger was invented by Willie Park Jnr. and sold for five shillings.

J. H. Hutchison - Long Nosed Spoon   Hutchison Irons   J. H. Hutchison 1890s Cleek Mark Access The North Berwick Golf Club Makers Collection

In 1896, Harry Vardon tied with J.H. Taylor for the Open Championship at Muirfield. The following day, not expecting to be involved in 36 hole play-off, the two players were committed to a prearranged tournament at North Berwick. Vardon with one eye on the Open play-off reserved his energies and strolled round, finishing ninth. While Taylor's competitive spirit forced him into joint first place, and a nine hole play-off, which he eventually won and a cheque for eight pounds. While in the town Harry Vardon visited Ben Sayers shop at 102 High Street, and his eye was caught by an old cleek discarded in the corner. He thought it would make an excellent putter with a new, shorter shaft. The clubmaker obliged, and Vardon used it to great effect in the play-off, winning his first Open Championship. Harry kept the cleek as a memento, and never used it again. D & W Auchterlonie, from the famous St Andrews clubmaking family opened a workshop at the Glen course in 1907. David was the clubmaker while Willie Auchterlonie, the 1893 Open Champion gave lessons. Clubs stamped with Auchterlonie - North Berwick are highly collectable. Alex Marshall, the club maker at 27 Station Hill took over the workshop at the Glen course in 1911 where he repaired clubs. Robert Thomson followed in 1920 and was appointed Burgh golf professional from 1923-1938. In 1889, James H. Hutchison took over the club makers workshop beside the first tee and remained there for twenty one years. Hutchison was the nephew of Peter McEwan from the famous Musselburgh club making dynasty. Hutchison was also the club maker for the Hon. Company of Edinburgh Golfers at Muirfield and was granted several patents. He produced the Dalrymple hammerhead clubs designed by Sir Walter Hamilton-Dalrymple. Hutichison's workshop also had lockers for rent and in 1891 Willie Cuthbert was the 'Box Keeper'. In 1895 James Hutchison employed five club makers including Tom Williamson from Grantham who was appointed professional at Notts Golf Club in 1896. Williamson was Midland Stroke Play Champion on several occasions and played for England against Scotland nine times (1904-07, 1909-1913). In 1909 Hutchison's son-in-law Andrew Bissett took over the business and his apprentice David Watt, the bother of James Watt mentioned below was Scottish Professional Champion in 1914. David Watt was killed in WW1 serving with the Gordon Highlanders. Ben Sayers continued the club making tradition on the site at the first tee from 1917. James Watt from Dirleton served his apprenticeship as a clubmaker with William Park & Son in their workshop at 15, Beach Road, North Berwick. Although Park's main clubmaking business was situated at Newbigging in Musselburgh, he opened a retail shop in London where Jim Watt worked for a short period. In 1904, Donald MacKay, a clubmaker from Dornoch arrived in North Berwick and he started a clubmaking business with Jim Watt at 1 Station Hill. In 1907 they were joined by Robert G. MacDonald, Dan MacKay's brother-in-law also a clubmaker from Dornoch. Park's workshop at 15 Beach Road remained empty until 1910. MacDonald was granted a professional license on the West Links while MacKay remained an amateur and joined the Rhodes Golf Club. Mackay emigrated to America in 1909 and MacDonald followed a year later, while Jim Watt continued the clubmaking business until he retired in the 1960s. In 1919, the New York Times listed Robert G. MacDonald as the fourth best tour pro in the USA. With the softer more springy Haskell ball, woods required a harder hit and persimmon became the tree of choice with inserts of various materials adding the smack. Iron heads were enlarged and scored with grooves and clubs with extra loft were added to the bag. In 1912, a good driver cost five or six shillings with the top of the range costing ten shillings and after WW1 the price doubled. Hickory shafts without the head cost sixpence to ninepence and in 1920 the same item cost seven shillings and sixpence. The wooden head clubs were coloured with a natural stain known as 'Keel'. It was nothing more than coloured water collected from the Eil Burn and used by Park and Sayers, which produced a light to dark tan. The rainfall determined how much sediment was moved which effected the colour. Water from the area further inland to Port Seton gave keel a much darker colour as it was in a mining region which produced a black dust. The rainwater which flowed into the river Tyne from the Lammermuir Hills gave a reddish brown water which when soot was added was reputed to 'give a handsome colouring effect'. A number of fine examples of the club making skills from Hutchison, Bissett, Sayers and Watt, can be seen in the North Berwick Museum.

Willie Dunn Jnr. apprenticed with his brother Tom Dunn at North Berwick, before working in France for five years. He moved to the USA and won the Championship of America in 1894. His outstanding influence on the early game in America is now being recognised. Far Right: John Dunn grew up in North Berwick and trained as a club maker under his father Tom Dunn. He followed his uncle Willie Dunn to America and became a respected golf instructor.

Willie Dunn Jnr.

John Dunn